Hindu’s believe that all living beings are a triad of the soul, mind and body and each of these individually or in combination, are variously referred to as the ‘self’. Yet the question arises as to what the real self is? Which of these three would get the pride of place? Further, we are assuming that the soul does exist. At least Hindu philosophy and most Abrahamic religions do accept the existence of the soul. Buddhism, in contrast, holds the premise that Atman does not exist and ‘Mind, Body Soul’ triad is absent in their philosophy.

Buddhists, on the other hand, argue for “An-atman” i.e. the Ātman does not exist and all this, including the Ātman, is an illusion (māyā). They assert that nirvana is that blissful state of realisation that the native has “no self and hence no soul”. However, without a strict control of the right path, this can take a very dangerous turn, as in the case of the Chārvāka[1] or the more modern ‘Osho’ followers where ethics take a back seat while the enjoyment of all worldly pleasures until satisfaction and automatic rejection, like vomiting after eating excessively, is the path. The Lokāyata (लोकायत) are often clubbed with the Chārvāka but they are different in that they are a part of the vedic stream. They are one of the three ānvīkṣikī (अन्वीक्षिकी), meaning examining by reason and logical philosophies, the other two being Yoga and Sāṁkhya. Lokāyata are precursors of modern scientists where logic and observation dominates and focus is on the physical existence.

Etymology and Meaning

The definition of ‘ātman’ is in the Ṛgveda which has been commented upon by various scholars including Yāska[2] who has given the name ātman to Mahādevatā (Mahādeva, Śiva) with all other devatā being His añga (parts). This is an important meaning for jyotiṣa.

Ātman is derived from the root अत् (at) meaning that which moves constantly. This is the basis of it having the power to enliven and animate everything, it’s all pervasive nature. Another root is अप् (ap) related to the waters which is its basis for permeation which is the very nature of the ātman. अप् (ap) is also the cause of the divinity of the deva and the deva, particularly Viṣṇu (from sarva vyāpakeśa) is omnipresent. Simply stated अत् (at) is the ‘śaiva nature’ while अप् (ap) is the ‘vaiṣṇava’ nature of the ātman.

Yāska continues in saying that the ātman is different from the indriya (sensory organs) and instead is their unifier. The indriya work together (in harmony) due to this unification by the ātman.

Based on nirukta of Yāska, there are only three meanings of the word ātman viz. (a) Mahādeva (b) Enlivening and permeating power and (c) unification of the indriya, and it is important to note at this stage that there is no mention of ātman being the vital air (prāṇa). Basically ātman is the inner essence, the soul.

Ātman and Prāṇa

Apte derives meaning from the root अन् (an) meaning to breathe, respire and thereby implying “to live”. Additionally, it also means to move (enliven). By this definition, ātman is extended to the breath which brings into reckoning (a) the body and (b) its self-awareness i.e. the sentient principle.

Various Meanings of Ātman

1. Kṣetrajña meaning “knowing the body” i.e. the soul, the conscious principle in the corporeal frame. Refers to the ātman as “Bhairava” [Amarakośa 1-4.29]. This is the “svātman” and is used in the Jaimini Sutra for one of the meanings of Svāṁśa. Other synonyms are śarīra, deha etc.
2. Puruṣa meaning the personal and animating principle in men and other beings i.e. the soul or spirit [Amarakośa]
3. Compound words that show the element into which the Ātman has permeated like bhūtātman which is the ātman in the bhūta (elements) or antarātman
4. The Supreme Being or Universal Soul referred to as parātman, paramātman where it is identified with Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva, Durgā and Gaṇeśa and is clearly distinct from the jīvātman (individuals). This has been used by Parāśara [BPHS] in differentiating between the avatāra and manuśya as well as among the avatāra themselves on the basis of the percentage of paramātma-aṁśa they possess.
5. Sūtrātman is the ‘thread-like’ soul that passes through everything in the universe and weaves a web of connectivity between everything. This is how the entire universe is represented within every being. It is the macrocosm and microcosm connect.
6. Various words which show the actions or states of human beings – mahātman (great soul), jitātman (conqueror of the self or indriya), ātmahan (destroyer of the self), ātma-rati or ātmarāma (rejoicing in the Supreme Self), ātma-vidyā (knowledge of soul, spiritual science), ātma-śuddhi (self-purification)
7. Adhyātma refers to everything that is “in, for, of and by ātman” which simply means “spiritual”

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[1] Chārvāka (चार्वाक), [m. Worldly Ones], a quasi-philosophical Indian school of materialists who rejected the notion of an after-world, karma, liberation (moksha), the authority of the sacred scriptures, the Vedas, and the immortality of the self

[2] Yāska (यास्क) was an early Sanskrit grammarian who preceded Pāṇini (fl. 4th BC), assumed to have lived in 6 BC – 5BC. He is traditionally identified as the Guru of Nirukta, the discipline of “etymology” (explanation of words) within Sanskrit grammatical tradition.